The history of the energy security of Afghanistan has been wrought with conflict. The story of Afghanistan revolves heavily around its geography. In addition to being at the crossroads of Asian trade routes, the Hindu Kush Mountains have created a natural barrier between empires since the beginning of recorded history in Afghanistan. This has led to a tradition of societies of isolation, often consisting of many local tribes or clans. The immense diversity of culture, ethnicity, and religion has wreaked havoc on modern attempts at a unified, central state power.
Viable energy resources are not plentiful in Afghanistan, and attempts at bringing fuels through the region have been met with much difficulty. It can be argued that trade and conflict have occurred in the void of viable domestic resources and that a tradition of instability has prevented progress in the form of domestic energy development or trade.
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Western Afghanistan is primarily made up of Persians, Tajiks, and Hazaras who mostly speak Persian languages including Dari and Farsi. Northern Afghanistan shows the influence of Central Asia and the majority of its inhabitants speak Turkic languages from that region. Pashtun tribes, speaking a Pashto dominate the South and East. Despite all of these ethnic and cultural differences, the majority of Afghanistan’s population is Sunni Muslim with a smaller population of Shia Muslims toward the west.
The Persian Empire ruled the land that is now Afghanistan between the 6th and 4th centuries, B.C. However, by 330 B.C. Iranian tribes fighting amongst themselves had severely weakened the empire, so by 327 B.C. Alexander the Great had conquered the Persian Empire. Greeks ruled most of what is now Afghanistan until the 2nd century, B.C. During their rule, warriors from the Mauryan Empire of India invaded southern Afghanistan and introduced Buddhism. The Greeks were then conquered by the Kushans in the 2nd century, B.C. who spread from the Kabul River Valley and ruled from the Iranian Plateau to the Indus River Valley. It was between the 2nd and 3rd centuries, A.D. that Buddhism reached its height in Afghanistan under Kushan rule. The time between the 3rd and 8th centuries, A.D. was marked by multiple empires fighting for control of Afghanistan. The Sassanian from Iran, the Guptas from India, the Hepthalites from central Asia, the Western Turks and the White Huns all fought for control of parts of Afghanistan during this period. The rise of Islam effectively ended the warring over Afghanistan between Asian empires of this sort.[1]
In the 7th century, A.D., Arab Muslims began to move east into Afghanistan. By the late 8th century, what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, northern India, and Central Asia had all converted to Sunni Islam. In 1220 Genghis Khan conquered the Islamic peoples of central Asia, but Islam survived as even his descendants eventually converted. In the 16th century, the Mughals of central Asia expanded down to India through what is now eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Mughals competed with the Safavids from Iran for control of the Pashtun dominated trading routes between Kabul and Kandahar. The Pashtuns were able to use this rivalry to manipulate each group.
The Pashtuns conquered Kabul and Kandahar in 1738 and ruled Afghanistan for the better part of three centuries. Their reign came after a revolt against Safavid Shah’s attempts at converting the Sunnis into Shias. In an agreement to withdraw presence in Afghanistan, the British supported Abdul Rehman as he claimed power in 1880 with the understanding that he would create a stronger centralized Afghan nation. His methods, however, were less than desirable, as he unified the Pashtuns and campaigned northward, destroying all other tribes. This campaign could easily be described as genocide as he removed the other tribes and installed Pashtuns throughout the country.[2]
In the 19th century, the expansion of the British and Russian empires led to what is called the “Great Game.” As Russia was gaining territory in Central Asia, Britain was pushing north from India and Afghanistan found itself in the middle of this struggle. In 1834, the Sikhs invaded further into Afghanistan, and Dost Mohammad Khan turned to the British for help. The British were interested in securing the Hindu Kush region in order to protect their south Asian holdings from Russian incursion. In 1837, after the British refused to help Afghanistan repel an Iranian invasion, Dost Mohammad turned to the Russians for help. This led to the First Anglo-Afghan War.
The British replaced Dost Mohammad in 1838 with Shuja, an heir of Ahmad Shah. The British troops stayed with Shuja for a short time after he took power to quell rebellions. As the troops exited Afghanistan, Dost Mohammad’s son Mohammad Akbar attacked and destroyed the British forces. Dost Mohammad retook the throne in 1843. In 1855 the Treaty of Peshawar was signed with British India, stating that each would respect the other’s territory.
In 1878 the Congress of Berlin eased Anglo-Russian tensions in Europe. Shortly thereafter, Russia sent an envoy to Kabul. Accordingly, the British tried to send their own convoy, but it was repelled by Afghan forces, beginning the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The war ended with the Treaty of Gandamak which gave the British control over Afghan international affairs.
In order to maintain power, the British found ways to weaken the rulers of the region. In 1893 the British created the Durand line, which formally split the Pashtun tribes between British India and Afghanistan.[2] In 1896 another agreement forced Afghanistan to take control of the Wakham Corridor, in the Hindu Kush region bordering China. The Anglo-Russian Convention, which divided Afghanistan between British and Russian influence and dictated that Russia must consult the British in matters pertaining to Afghan-Russian relations, marked the end of the Great Game.
After the Second World War, Britain’s influence in the region diminished, as India and Pakistan gained independence. The formation of Pakistan was cause for much dispute between the Pashtun populations on either side of the Afghanistan/Pakistan border. The Cold War brought US interest into the area, as the Soviet Union began again to influence Afghanistan. This foreign involvement also led to the involvement of regional powers, creating an atmosphere of strife surrounding Afghanistan.[3]
In 1953, Afghanistan became a constitutional monarchy. King Zahir Shah’s cousin, Mohammad Daoud became the prime minister and he became aligned with the Soviets, a move that was not popular with his constituents. In 1963, he was forced from power by the king, but in 1973 Daoud overthrew the monarchy and became president.[2]
During this period of Afghan relations with the Soviets, the United States began funding groups of rebels known as the Mujahedin. This came at a time when those in support of the Soviets and the traditional Afghans were clashing and a civil war was in the making. The Mujahedin took an anti-Soviet stance.
In 1959, the first oil field was discovered in Afghanistan, but to date Afghanistan has not developed the facilities to produce oil.[4] By 1963, Pakistani Border closures were causing so much damage to the Afghan economy that Daoud was forced to resign and from 1963 to 1973 King Mohammad Zahir Shah ruled directly. It was during this period that two important events took place: the first natural gas wells were tapped in 1967, and the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) was founded.[1][4] Then, in 1973 while the king was in Italy, former Prime Minister Daoud staged a coup with the help of the help of the PDPA and seized power. However, during his first year in power he did two things that cost him his power: he phased the PDPA out of the government, and he turned away from the USSR and began to look for aid from the Muslim oil-rich countries. In addition, he turned to Iran and the US for help managing his Pashtun population. The USSR helped the PDPA to assassinate Daoud in a 1978 coup. In 1978 the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA) was formed. Then, after the USSR-installed leader of the PDPA angered the Afghan population, the Soviets began to worry about their interests in the region. On December 25, 1979 the Soviets invaded Afghanistan [1]
As a result of the Soviet invasion, a jihad against the USSR was announced. Afghans largely opposed the Soviets and communism. The conflict continued until 1989. It was during this period that the image of Afghanistan as a culture of decentralized militants, warlords, fundamentalism, and drug trade emerged. In fact, such situations resulted not from the inherent qualities of Afghan people, but from the attempts by foreign powers to exert their force via the installation of weapons and militant ideology.[5]
Because the initial Soviet invasion occurred in the winter, they were not met with much resistance. Eventually, with aid from many of the world’s powers, the Mujahedin was able to put up a fight. This foreign support of militant fundamentalists further separated the traditional tribal leaders from power.
The majority of foreign support passed through Pakistan. The Inter-Services Intelligence and Central Intelligence Agency directed the distribution of most funds and equipment to the area in an operation called the ISI-CIA pipeline. This relationship bolstered the power of the ISI and Pakistan became a major player in the region.
Afghanistan’s lack of a transportation network caused many problems for the Soviet incursion. Their inability to focus efforts on the pursuit of their military enemies led to the destruction of other targets, crippling Afghan society. The destruction of its agricultural capacity forced Afghanistan to almost exclusively become a military society.[5]
As the Soviets withdrew in 1989, Afghanistan was left with far greater military capability than it had had. However, internal strife between warlords and the collapse of the DRA in 1992 with the fall of Kabul led the country into civil war.[2]
During the Soviet occupation, Afghanistan’s natural gas production and exports peaked. In the mid-to-late 1980s, natural gas exports were valued at over 50 percent of all exports from Afghanistan. 90 percent of these exports went to the USSR. This kind of production, however, did not last. With the withdrawal of Soviet troops, gas wells were tapped to prevent sabotage. Since then, internal strife has prevented production from rising above minimal levels [6]
The vacuum left as a result of the withdrawal of the Soviet occupation and the fall of the government created a perfect breeding ground for lawless warlord rule. There was no government to oppose such movements and soon, the Taliban was rising to power. It is easy to make a connection between the actions of the CIA and the prominence of the Taliban. The agency provided weapons and training to fundamentalist groups to oppose communism and its spread. This supply ended with the end of the Soviet occupation, but all ties were not severed with the Mujahedin.
Under the leadership of Mohammad Omar, the Taliban emerged in 1994. Omar was a guerilla fighter against the Soviets and their government. The Taliban’s purpose was to disarm the country and bring peace to it. These goals were closely aligned with the United States’ strategic goals and a friendly relationship was developed. The Taliban consisted of many of the Mujahedin that the US supported and promoted and it was thought that the Taliban could limit Iranian influence in the region.[7]
The Taliban developed as many poor rural people felt oppressed by the mostly Persian urban elite. This oppression was associated with modern ideals, so it became a tenet of Taliban beliefs to avoid such progress and embrace tradition. As more and more people were attacked by militant warlords, the Taliban gained legitimacy and appeared righteous in its mission to disarm the country and return it to peace.
In its attempts to establish legitimacy for its cause, the Taliban used the Quran. The organization imposed Sharia law to maintain strict order in its territories and control over the people within them. Although the Taliban saw some success in disarming and reducing violence, it was not successful in bringing central power and authority to the country.[2] Because the Taliban’s control was based on fear and did not produce a self-sufficient nation, Afghanistan became dependent on foreign aid (which the Taliban opposed) and smuggling of illegal goods (which the Taliban controlled).[7]
By 1996, the Taliban had taken control of the southern two-thirds of Afghanistan, seized Kabul, and established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Afghan culture saw changes issued by their new rulers, including oppression of women, and any modern technology. The Taliban had all but defeated their last remaining enemies in the north when the attacks of September 11, 2001 occurred in the US.
As a result of the US invasion and later occupation, Afghanistan’s natural gas production dropped to near nothing. After the Taliban refused to turn over Osama bin Laden to the United States, the US attacked, and the Taliban were declared defeated by 2002. Also in 2002 Mohammad Zahir Shah returned to Afghanistan, and Hamid Karzai was elected president. In 2004 a new constitution was ratified, and a legislature was elected.
The Taliban was not gone, however, and emerged forcefully in 2006, leading to resurgence in US and NATO forces that same year. Meanwhile, Afghanistan and NATO claimed that Pakistan was allowing the Taliban to group within its borders. This, along with the construction of a wall along the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, created tension and led to several clashes.
The NATO occupation continues to be a story of instability. The question is "not whether NATO can survive Afghanistan, but rather whether the coalition of actors involved in stabilizing the country can demonstrate the requisite cohesiveness, military resolve, political will, and problem solving capacities to not only prevail in Afghanistan but also confront a host of other global issues.” [8] Being able to transform the "failed state" into a stable country is the most important goal of the NATO campaign. If Afghanistan can provide for its people and establish viable economic and social systems, the question of global security will come closer to being answered.[9]
Plans for a Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline were batted around, starting in the mid-1990s. The project was intended to be a natural gas pipeline running from Turkmenistan through Afghanistan and Pakistan and eventually reaching India. The American company Unocal led the efforts to construct the pipeline. As planning for the project went ahead, it was met with feasibility issues as war and conflict caused instability in the region. The remaining Taliban presence in southern Afghanistan has made feasibility questionable and the project has not proceeded. An oil pipeline was also proposed to run along with the gas pipeline, but plans for it, too, have halted.
In 2009 Karzai was re-elected and the government’s power was growing. By January 2010, Afghanistan had a national security force of 107,000 soldiers and a police force of 99,000. In spite of this progress, the US and NATO are still working to secure the country, corruption is prevalent, and there is a severe lack of infrastructure. Because of the lack of infrastructure, even accessing Afghanistan’s resources is difficult. Even so, in 2010 a $2.5 billion contract was awarded to a Chinese firm to develop a copper mine. Furthermore, the Ministry of the Mines has declared that they are moving forward in 2010 with gas and oil tenders.[6]
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